A predominant alkaloid found in commercial tobacco varieties is nicotine, typically accounting for 90%-95% of the total alkaloid pool. The remaining alkaloid fraction is primarily three additional pyridine alkaloids: nornicotine, anabasine and anatabine. Nornicotine is generated directly from nicotine by nicotine N-demethylase. Nornicotine usually represents less than 5% of the total pyridine alkaloid pool. However, tobacco plants that initially produce very low amounts of nornicotine can give rise to progeny that metabolically “convert” a large percentage of leaf nicotine to nornicotine. This process is termed “conversion.” In tobacco plants that have genetically converted (i.e., “converters”), the great majority of nornicotine production occurs during senescence and curing of a mature leaf (Wernsman & Matzinger (1968) Tob. Sci. 12:226-228). Burley tobaccos are particularly prone to genetic conversion, with rates as high as 20% per generation observed in some cultivars.
During curing and processing of the tobacco leaf, a portion of the nornicotine is metabolized to NNN, a tobacco-specific nitrosamine (TSNA) alleged to be carcinogenic in laboratory animals (Hecht & Hoffmann (1990) Cancer Surveys 8:273-294; and Hoffmann et al. (1994) J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 41:1-52; Hecht (1998) Chem. Res. Toxicol. 11:559-603). In flue-cured tobaccos, TSNAs predominantly form through a reaction of alkaloids with minute amounts of nitrogen oxides present in combustion gases in a direct-fired heating systems used in traditional curing barns (Peele & Gentry (1999) “Formation of tobacco-specific nitrosamines in flue-cured tobacco,” CORESTA Meeting, Agro-Phyto Groups, Suzhou, China). The combustion gases, however, can be eliminated when curing barns are retrofitted with heat-exchangers, which eliminate the mixing of combustion gases with curing air, thereby reducing TSNAs in tobaccos cured in this manner (Boyette & Hamm (2001) Rec. Adv. Tob. Sci. 27:17-22.). In contrast, in air-cured Burley tobaccos, TSNA formation primarily proceeds through a reaction of tobacco alkaloids with nitrite, a process catalyzed by leaf-borne microbes (Bush et al. (2001) Rec. Adv. Tob. Sci. 27:23-46). Thus far, attempts to reduce TSNAs through modification of curing conditions while maintaining acceptable quality standards have not been successful for air-cured tobaccos.
In Burley tobacco plants, a positive correlation exists between the nornicotine content of a leaf and an amount of NNN that accumulates in the cured leaf (Bush et al. (2001) Rec. Adv. Tob. Sci, 27:23-46; and Shi et al. (2000) Tob. Chem. Res. Conf. 54:Abstract 27). However, keeping nornicotine levels at a minimum is difficult in Burley tobacco plants because of conversion. Plant breeders and seed producers are traditionally responsible for minimizing the number of Burley tobacco plants that accumulate high levels of nornicotine. Though the percentage of converters that are ultimately grown in fields are reduced through roguing converters during propagation of seed stocks. Unfortunately, this process is costly, time-consuming and imperfect.
Once a plant converts, the high nornicotine trait is inherited as a single dominant gene (Griffith et al. (1955) Science 121:343-344; Burke & Jeffrey (1958) Tob. Sci. 2:139-141; and Man et al. (1964) Crop Sci. 4:349-353). The nature of this gene, however, is currently unknown. In the simplest of scenarios, the conversion locus may represent a nonfunctional nicotine N-demethylase gene that regains its function in converters, possibly through the mobilization of a mutation-inducting transposable element.
Alternatively, the converter locus may encode a protein that initiates a cascade of events that ultimately enables converters to metabolize nicotine to nornicotine, meaning that multiple genes may be involved.
Regardless of whether there are one or many genes associated with conversion, the gene(s) encoding polypeptides having nicotine demethylase activity play a pivotal role in this process. Although the inability to purify active nicotine N-demethylase from crude extracts has impeded the isolation and identification of this enzyme, there is some evidence that a member of the cytochrome P450 superfamily of monooxygenases may be involved (Hao & Yeoman (1996) Phytochem. 41:477-482; Hao & Yeoman (1996) Phytochem. 42:325-329; Chelvarajan et al. (1993) J. Agric, Food Chem. 41:858-862; and Hao & Yeoman (1998) J. Plant Physiol. 152:420-426). Unfortunately, these studies are not conclusive, as classic P450 inhibitors, such as carbon monoxide and tetcylasis, fail to lower enzyme activity at rates comparable to other reported P450-mediated reactions (Chelvarajan et al. (1993) J. Agric. Food Chem. 41:858-862).
Furthermore, cytochrome P450s are ubiquitous, transmembrane proteins that participate in metabolizing a wide range of compounds (reviewed by Schuler (1996) Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 15:235-284; and Schuler & Werck-Reichhart (2003) Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 54:629-667). Examples of biochemical reactions mediated by cytochrome P450s include hydroxylations, demethylations and epoxidations. In plants, cytochrome P450 gene families are very large. For example, total genome sequence examination revealed 272 predicted cytochrome P450 genes in Arabidopsis and at least 455 unique cytochrome P450 genes in rice (see, e.g., Nelson et al. (2004) Plant Physiol. 135(2):756-772). Even though cytochrome P450s have been implicated in the conversion of nicotine to nornicotine, identification of key participating members of this protein family remains a challenge.
Aside from serving as a precursor for NNN, recent studies suggest that the nornicotine found in tobacco products has undesirable health consequences. For example, Dickerson & Janda demonstrated that nornicotine causes aberrant protein glycosylation within a cell (Dickerson & Janda (2002) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA 99:15084-15088). Likewise, concentrations of nornicotine-modified proteins were much higher in plasma of smokers compared to nonsmokers. Furthermore, nornicotine can covalently modify commonly prescribed steroid drugs such as prednisone, which can alter both the efficacy and toxicity of these drugs.
In view of the difficulties associated with conversion, as well as the undesirable health effects of nornicotine accumulation, improved methods for reducing the nornicotine content in tobacco varieties, particularly Burley tobacco plants, are therefore desirable. Such methods would not only help ameliorate the potential negative health consequences of the nornicotine per se as described above, but also help to reduce NNN levels.